| Preface |
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ix | |
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1 | (4) |
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4 | (1) |
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2 Fundamentals of Foam Formation |
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5 | (12) |
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5 | (1) |
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2.2 Fundamental Principles of Foam Formation |
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6 | (5) |
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6 | (2) |
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8 | (1) |
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9 | (2) |
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2.3 Supporting Evidence from Specific Foam Systems |
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11 | (2) |
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2.3.1 Thermoplastic Foams |
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11 | (1) |
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12 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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13 | (1) |
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14 | (3) |
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3 Cellular Structure and Properties of Foamed Polymers |
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17 | (38) |
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17 | (1) |
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3.2 Porous and Cellular Systems |
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17 | (5) |
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3.2.1 Statistical Meaning of the Concept of a Cell |
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17 | (1) |
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18 | (1) |
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3.2.3 Basic Relationships |
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19 | (1) |
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20 | (2) |
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3.3 Open- and Closed-Cell Foamed Plastics |
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22 | (2) |
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22 | (1) |
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3.3.2 Open Cells and Density |
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23 | (1) |
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24 | (1) |
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3.4 Density of Foamed Polymers |
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24 | (4) |
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24 | (1) |
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3.4.2 Density and Cell Size |
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25 | (1) |
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3.4.3 Density and Wall Thickness |
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26 | (2) |
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3.5 Cell Shape of Foamed Polymers |
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28 | (5) |
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28 | (1) |
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28 | (2) |
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3.5.3 Anisotropy of Cell Shapes |
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30 | (3) |
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3.6 Cell Size of Foamed Polymers |
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33 | (5) |
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3.6.1 Methods of Estimation |
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33 | (1) |
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3.6.2 Cell Size and Number of Cells |
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34 | (1) |
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3.6.3 Cell Size and Wall Thickness |
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34 | (1) |
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35 | (2) |
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3.6.5 Cell Size and Physical Properties |
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37 | (1) |
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3.7 Models of Cellular Structure and Calculation of Mechanical Properties of Foamed Polymers |
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38 | (2) |
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3.7.1 Flexible Foamed Polymers |
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38 | (1) |
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3.7.2 Rigid Foamed Polymers |
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39 | (1) |
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3.8 Cellular Structure and Thermal Conductivity of Foamed Polymers |
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40 | (7) |
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3.8.1 Thermal Conductivity of the Polymer Phase |
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41 | (1) |
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3.8.2 Thermal Conductivity of the Gas Phase |
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41 | (3) |
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3.8.3 Radiative Thermal Conductivity |
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44 | (1) |
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3.8.4 Convective Thermal Conductivity |
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45 | (1) |
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3.8.5 Effects of Variables on the Thermal Conductivity |
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46 | (1) |
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47 | (5) |
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3.9.1 Three Generations of Polymer Foams |
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47 | (1) |
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3.9.2 Six Structural Levels |
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48 | (1) |
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3.9.3 Quantitative Parameters of Cellular Structure |
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49 | (1) |
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3.9.4 Technological Concepts |
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50 | (1) |
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3.9.5 Advantages of Foamed Polymers |
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51 | (1) |
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52 | (3) |
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4 Flexible Polyurethane Foams |
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55 | (66) |
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55 | (2) |
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55 | (1) |
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56 | (1) |
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57 | (20) |
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4.2.1 The Polymerization Reaction |
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59 | (1) |
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4.2.2 The Gas-Producing Reaction |
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60 | (1) |
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4.2.3 Foam Recipe Components |
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61 | (16) |
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77 | (7) |
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4.3.1 Review of Current Concepts |
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77 | (7) |
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4.3.2 Model for Flexible Foam Formation |
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84 | (1) |
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4.4 Preparation of Flexible Foam |
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84 | (10) |
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4.4.1 General Requirements |
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85 | (1) |
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4.4.2 Laboratory-Scale Cup-Foaming |
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86 | (1) |
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4.4.3 Laboratory Box-Foams |
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86 | (1) |
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87 | (1) |
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88 | (1) |
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4.4.6 Commercial-Scale Processes |
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89 | (5) |
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4.5 Foam Physical Properties |
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94 | (6) |
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95 | (1) |
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95 | (2) |
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97 | (1) |
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97 | (1) |
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98 | (1) |
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99 | (1) |
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99 | (1) |
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100 | (1) |
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100 | (5) |
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4.6.1 Slabstock Chemistry |
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100 | (1) |
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4.6.2 Alternative Blowing Agent Developments |
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100 | (1) |
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4.6.3 High Load Bearing Foams |
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101 | (1) |
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4.6.4 High Resilience Foams |
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102 | (1) |
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102 | (1) |
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103 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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104 | (1) |
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105 | (4) |
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105 | (1) |
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106 | (1) |
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107 | (1) |
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108 | (1) |
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109 | (12) |
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5 Rigid Polyurethane Foams |
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121 | (20) |
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121 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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122 | (1) |
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123 | (4) |
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123 | (1) |
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124 | (1) |
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125 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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126 | (1) |
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5.4.6 Combustion Modifiers |
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127 | (1) |
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127 | (1) |
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128 | (2) |
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129 | (1) |
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129 | (1) |
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130 | (1) |
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130 | (1) |
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131 | (5) |
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131 | (1) |
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5.8.2 Mechanical Properties |
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131 | (1) |
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5.8.3 Water, Solvent, and Chemical Resistance |
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132 | (1) |
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5.8.4 Thermal Conductivity |
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132 | (2) |
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134 | (2) |
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136 | (1) |
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136 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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137 | (1) |
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138 | (1) |
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138 | (2) |
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140 | (1) |
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141 | (48) |
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141 | (2) |
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6.2 Isocyanurate Chemistry |
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143 | (17) |
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6.2.1 Catalysts for Cyclotrimerization |
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143 | (5) |
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6.2.2 Kinetics and Mechanisms of Cyclotrimerization |
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148 | (8) |
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6.2.3 Relative Catalytic Activity |
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156 | (4) |
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6.3 Preparation of Modified Polyisocyanurate Foams |
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160 | (20) |
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6.3.1 Urethane-Modified Polyisocyanurate Foams |
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160 | (15) |
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6.3.2 Oxazolidone-Modified Polyisocyanurate Foams |
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175 | (3) |
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6.3.3 Amide-Modified Polyisocyanurate Foams |
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178 | (1) |
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6.3.4 Carbodiimide-Modified Polyisocyanurate Foams |
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178 | (1) |
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6.3.5 Imide-Modified Polyisocyanurate Foams |
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179 | (1) |
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180 | (4) |
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6.4.1 Composite Foam Boards |
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180 | (1) |
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6.4.2 Flame-Retardant Seamless Insulation [61] |
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181 | (1) |
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6.4.3 Building Insulation |
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182 | (1) |
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6.4.4 Chemical and Petrochemical Plant Insulation |
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183 | (1) |
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6.4.5 High-Rise Building Walls |
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183 | (1) |
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6.4.6 Chemical-Resistant Floats |
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183 | (1) |
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6.4.7 Cryogenic, Petrochemical, and Solar Energy Applications |
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183 | (1) |
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6.4.8 Highly Resilient Flexible Polyurethane Foams |
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184 | (1) |
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184 | (5) |
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7 Polystyrene and Structural Foam |
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189 | (44) |
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7.1 Introduction and General Description |
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189 | (1) |
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190 | (1) |
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7.2 Chemistry and Preparation |
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190 | (5) |
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7.2.1 Theory of the Expansion Process |
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191 | (2) |
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7.2.2 Blowing Agent Selection |
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193 | (2) |
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7.3 Properties and Their Relation to Structure |
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195 | (13) |
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195 | (1) |
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7.3.2 Properties of Commercial Products |
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195 | (4) |
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7.3.3 Mechanical Properties |
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199 | (5) |
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204 | (2) |
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7.3.5 Moisture Resistance |
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206 | (1) |
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7.3.6 Electrical Properties |
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207 | (1) |
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7.3.7 Environmental Aging |
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207 | (1) |
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207 | (1) |
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7.4 Commercial Production and Processing |
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208 | (6) |
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7.4.1 Manufacturing Process |
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208 | (4) |
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7.4.2 Commercial Products and Processes |
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212 | (2) |
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214 | (11) |
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215 | (1) |
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216 | (1) |
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217 | (2) |
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7.5.4 Structural Components |
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219 | (1) |
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7.5.5 Marine Applications |
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219 | (1) |
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7.5.6 Electrical Insulation |
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219 | (1) |
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7.5.7 Space Filling and Seals |
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219 | (1) |
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220 | (1) |
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7.5.9 Energy Considerations in Foam Insulation |
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220 | (4) |
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7.5.10 Health and Safety Factors |
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224 | (1) |
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225 | (8) |
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233 | (68) |
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233 | (1) |
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8.2 Chemistry and Preparation |
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234 | (28) |
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8.2.1 Foam Expansion with a Physical Blowing Agent |
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237 | (11) |
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8.2.2 Foam Expansion with a Chemical Blowing Agent |
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248 | (14) |
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8.3 Properties and Their Relation to Structure |
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262 | (13) |
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8.3.1 Properties of Commercial Products |
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266 | (1) |
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8.3.2 Relationships Between Structure and Properties |
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267 | (8) |
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8.4 Commercial Production and Processing |
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275 | (13) |
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8.4.1 Extrusion Processes |
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275 | (3) |
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8.4.2 Processes for Manufacturing Moldable Polyolefin Beads |
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278 | (3) |
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8.4.3 Cross-Linked Polyolefin Foam Sheet Processes |
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281 | (5) |
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8.4.4 Cross-Linked Polyolefin Foam Bun Stock Processes |
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286 | (2) |
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288 | (5) |
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288 | (1) |
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289 | (4) |
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293 | (8) |
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301 | (46) |
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301 | (2) |
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9.2 Characteristics of PVC |
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303 | (2) |
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304 | (1) |
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9.2.2 Structure Changes During Processing |
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305 | (1) |
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9.2.3 Influence of PVC Fusion on Physical Properties |
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305 | (1) |
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9.3 Formulation Technology |
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305 | (15) |
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9.3.1 Overview of Formulas for PVC Foam |
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305 | (3) |
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9.3.2 Effects of Formulation Ingredients on the Foaming Process and Properties of Foamed Products |
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308 | (9) |
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9.3.3 Use of Recycled PVC in Foam Formulations |
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317 | (1) |
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9.3.4 Design of Experiment (DOE) for Foam Formulation Development |
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318 | (2) |
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9.4 Processing Technology |
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320 | (15) |
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9.4.1 Extrusion of PVC Foams |
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321 | (7) |
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9.4.2 Injection Molding of PVC Foams |
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328 | (1) |
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9.4.3 Foaming of PVC at Atmospheric Pressure |
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329 | (2) |
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9.4.4 Microcellular PVC Foams |
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331 | (3) |
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9.4.5 PVC/Wood Flour Composite Foams |
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334 | (1) |
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9.5 Mechanical Property Analyses and Test Standards |
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335 | (6) |
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9.5.1 Mechanical Properties |
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336 | (4) |
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9.5.2 ASTM and ISO Standards |
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340 | (1) |
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341 | (6) |
| 10 Epoxy Foams |
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347 | (20) |
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347 | (1) |
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10.2 Epoxy Chemistry and Formulations |
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347 | (2) |
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10.3 Blowing or Foaming Agents and Processes |
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349 | (1) |
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10.3.1 Inert Gas Blowing Agents |
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350 | (1) |
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10.3.2 Inert Liquid Blowing Agents |
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350 | (1) |
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10.3.3 Reactive Blowing Agents |
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350 | (1) |
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10.3.4 Expanding Syntactic Fillers |
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351 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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352 | (1) |
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10.3.7 Non-Aqueous Liquid Extractable Pore Formers and CIPS |
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352 | (1) |
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10.3.8 Solid Extractable Pore Formers |
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353 | (1) |
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353 | (1) |
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10.4 Combinations of Epoxy and Isocyanate Based Thermosets |
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354 | (1) |
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10.5 Three-Phase Syntactics |
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355 | (1) |
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10.6 Fiber-Reinforced Foams |
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356 | (1) |
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356 | (1) |
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357 | (1) |
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10.8.1 Automotive (also See Adhesive Applications Below) |
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357 | (1) |
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10.8.2 Electronics Encapsulation |
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359 | (1) |
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361 | (1) |
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10.8.4 Building Retrofitting |
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361 | (1) |
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10.8.5 Dams, Tanks and Bridges |
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362 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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362 | (1) |
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10.8.8 Personal Care Products |
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363 | (1) |
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10.8.9 Thermoplastic Processing and Recycling |
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363 | (1) |
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363 | (1) |
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363 | (4) |
| 11 Latex Foam and Sponge |
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367 | (12) |
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367 | (2) |
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369 | (1) |
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11.2.1 Compounding Ingredients |
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369 | (1) |
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370 | (1) |
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371 | (2) |
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373 | (1) |
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11.3.1 Original Freeze Process |
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374 | (1) |
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11.3.2 Newer Freeze Process |
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374 | (1) |
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374 | (1) |
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11.4.1 Open-Cell Sponge Rubber |
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374 | (1) |
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11.4.2 Closed-Cell Sponge Rubber |
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375 | (3) |
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378 | (1) |
| 12 Silicone Foams |
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379 | (12) |
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12.1 Background and Development |
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379 | (1) |
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379 | (1) |
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12.1.2 Development of Silicone Foams |
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379 | (1) |
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12.1.3 Development of Flame-Retardant Foam Technology |
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381 | (1) |
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12.2 Chemistry and Preparation |
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381 | (1) |
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381 | (1) |
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12.2.2 Optional ingredients |
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381 | (1) |
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384 | (1) |
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12.3 Properties and Their Relationship to Structure |
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384 | (1) |
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12.3.1 Structural Features |
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384 | (1) |
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12.3.2 Physical Properties |
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384 | (2) |
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12.4 Commercial Production and Processing |
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386 | (1) |
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386 | (1) |
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386 | (1) |
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387 | (1) |
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12.4.4 Equipment Selection |
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388 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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388 | (1) |
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12.5.3 Features of Silicone Products |
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388 | (1) |
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12.5.4 Areas of Application |
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389 | (1) |
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389 | (2) |
| 13 Fluoropolymer Foams |
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391 | (18) |
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13.1 History and Introduction |
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391 | (1) |
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13.2 Chemistry and Physics of Foam Preparation |
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392 | (1) |
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13.2.1 Nucleation and Bubble Growth |
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393 | (4) |
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13.3 Properties and Their Relation to Cell Structure |
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397 | (1) |
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13.3.1 Physical Properties |
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397 | (1) |
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13.3.2 Thermal Properties |
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399 | (1) |
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400 | (1) |
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13.3.4 Electrical Properties |
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400 | (2) |
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13.4 Commercial Production and Processing |
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402 | (1) |
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13.4.1 Foaming of FEP and PFA Resins |
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402 | (1) |
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13.4.2 Foaming of Fluoroelastomer Resins (such as Viton) |
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403 | (1) |
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13.4.3 Expansion of PTFE Resin |
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404 | (1) |
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405 | (1) |
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406 | (3) |
| 14 Wood Flour Composite Foams |
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409 | (38) |
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409 | (1) |
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14.1.1 Background on Polymeric Composites |
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409 | (1) |
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14.1.2 Natural Fibers and Their Properties |
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410 | (1) |
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14.1.3 Plastic/Wood Flour Composite Foams |
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413 | (2) |
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14.2 Major Issues in Development of PWC Foams |
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415 | (1) |
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14.2.1 Thermal Degradation of Natural Fibers |
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416 | (1) |
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14.2.2 Moisture Content and Volatile Emissions from Natural Fibers |
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418 | (1) |
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14.2.3 Dispersion of Natural Fiber and Fiber-Matrix Bonding |
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420 | (1) |
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14.2.4 Processing Difficulties Due to Increased Viscosity |
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420 | (1) |
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14.3 Phase Changes in Foaming of PWC |
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421 | (1) |
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14.3.1 Changes in Phase Morphology of the Extrudate During Microcellular Foaming and Fine-Celled PWC Foaming |
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421 | (1) |
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14.3.2 Polymer/Gas Solution Formation |
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422 | (1) |
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423 | (1) |
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14.3.4 Cell Growth Control |
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424 | (2) |
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14.4 Experiments and Discussion |
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426 | (1) |
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14.4.1 Effects of Volatile Emissions from Wood Flour During Extrusion Processing |
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427 | (1) |
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14.4.2 Foaming Experiments with Varying Content of Extractives |
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431 | (1) |
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14.4.3 Critical Processing Temperature in Extrusion Processing of PWC Foams |
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434 | (1) |
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14.4.4 Foaming with Various CBAs |
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439 | (3) |
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442 | (1) |
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443 | (4) |
| 15 Phenolic Foams |
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447 | (10) |
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15.1 Chemistry and Foam Formation |
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447 | (1) |
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447 | (1) |
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15.1.2 Crosslinking of Phenolic Resins |
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|
449 | (1) |
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|
450 | (1) |
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15.1.4 Reduction in Corrosivity of Phenolic Foam |
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452 | (1) |
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15.2 Properties and Their Relation to Structure |
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452 | (2) |
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15.3 Commercial Production and Processing |
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454 | (1) |
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455 | (1) |
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|
455 | (2) |
| 16 Flame Retardancy of Polymeric Foams |
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457 | (22) |
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457 | (1) |
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16.2 The Combustion of Polymeric Foams |
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458 | (1) |
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16.2.1 Flame Combustion of Polymeric Foams |
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458 | (1) |
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16.2.2 Smoldering Combustion of Polymeric Foams |
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460 | (1) |
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16.2.3 Filtration Combustion of Gases in Polymeric Foams |
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462 | (1) |
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16.3 Test Methods and Fire Safety Classification Parameters |
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|
463 | (1) |
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of Foamed Materials for the Assessment of Fire Hazards |
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463 | (5) |
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16.4 Recent Advances in Flame Retardancy of Polymeric Foams |
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468 | (1) |
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16.4.1 The Development of Foams Based on Inherently Thermally Stable and Flame Retardant Polymers |
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468 | (1) |
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16.4.2 Chemical and Physical Modification of Polymeric Foams |
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470 | (1) |
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16.4.3 Additive Flame Retardants |
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471 | (1) |
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475 | (4) |
| 17 Syntactic Polymer Foams |
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479 | (26) |
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479 | (1) |
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17.2 Hollow Sphere Fillers |
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|
480 | (1) |
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17.2.1 General Information |
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|
480 | (1) |
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17.2.2 Glass Microspheres |
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|
480 | (1) |
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17.2.3 Polymeric Micro spheres |
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|
481 | (1) |
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17.2.4 Miscellaneous Other Microspheres |
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482 | (1) |
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|
482 | (1) |
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17.3 Syntactic Foam Processing |
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|
482 | (1) |
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17.3.1 General Considerations |
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|
482 | (1) |
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17.3.2 Rheology of Syntactic Mixtures |
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483 | (1) |
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17.3.3 Casting and Molding Compositions |
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483 | (1) |
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17.3.4 Regulating the Apparent Density |
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484 | (1) |
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17.3.5 Microsphere Space Factors and Packing |
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|
485 | (2) |
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17.4 Syntactic Foam Production |
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|
487 | (1) |
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17.4.1 Epoxy Syntactic Foams |
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|
487 | (1) |
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17.4.2 Oligoester Syntactic Foams |
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488 | (1) |
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17.4.3 Phenolic Syntactic Foams |
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488 | (1) |
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17.4.4 Organosilicone Syntactic Foams |
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489 | (1) |
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17.4.5 Polyimide Syntactic Foams |
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489 | (1) |
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17.4.6 Carbonized Syntactic Foams |
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489 | (1) |
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17.4.7 Syntactic Prepregs |
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490 | (1) |
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17.4.8 Miscellaneous Syntactic Foams |
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|
491 | (1) |
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17.5 Physical Properties of Syntactic Foams |
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|
491 | (1) |
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17.5.1 Strength Properties |
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|
491 | (1) |
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17.5.2 Water Absorption and Resistance to Hydrostatic Pressure |
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|
494 | (1) |
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17.5.3 Thermal Properties |
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|
496 | (1) |
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17.6 Recent Developments and Main Applications |
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|
497 | (1) |
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17.6.1 Sub-Sea and Shipbuilding Applications |
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|
497 | (1) |
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17.6.2 Structural Applications |
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|
500 | (1) |
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17.6.3 Aerospace Applications |
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|
502 | (1) |
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17.6.4 Other Applications |
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|
503 | (1) |
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|
503 | (2) |
| 18 Blowing Agents for Polymeric Foams |
|
505 | (44) |
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|
505 | (1) |
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|
505 | (2) |
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18.3 Chemical Blowing Agents |
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|
507 | (1) |
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18.3.1 Main Characteristics |
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|
507 | (1) |
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18.3.2 Inorganic Blowing Agents |
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|
509 | (1) |
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18.3.3 Organic Blowing Agents |
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|
511 | (1) |
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18.3.4 Blowing Agents that Liberate Gases as a Result of Chemical Interaction between the Components |
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|
532 | (1) |
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18.3.5 Practical Guide for Selection of CBAs |
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|
536 | (3) |
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18.4 Physical Blowing Agents and Environmental Problems |
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|
539 | (1) |
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18.4.1 Main Characteristics |
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|
539 | (1) |
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|
540 | (1) |
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18.4.3 Solid Blowing Agents |
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|
546 | (1) |
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|
546 | (1) |
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|
546 | (1) |
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|
547 | (2) |
| Appendix 1 |
|
549 | (3) |
|
Letters of the Roman Alphabet |
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|
549 | (1) |
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|
550 | (1) |
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|
551 | (1) |
| Appendix 2 Conversion Factors between English and S.I. Units for Quantities |
|
552 | |
|
Used in Describing the Physical Properties of Foams |
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|
552 | |